Electric Power Systems Planning

Electricity is so basic to the world economy that certain electricity indices are used to express a country’s economic standing (consumption or production of electricity per capita) and the standard of living enjoyed by a people (per capita electricity consumption in the domestic sector). Moreover, electricity supply has special characteristics which make the service unique as compared to other types of industry. The end product has to be delivered instantaneously and automatically upon the consumer’s demand; except for pumped storage plants and Electric batteries, technologies do not exist that can produce it economically at uniform rates, hold it in storage in large quantities, and deliver it under convenient schedules; insufficient capacity (shortage) or excessive capacity (idle capacity)
have negative effects on the economy; the close inter-relation with economic and social factors imposes labour, environmental, financial and other constraints on the problem. Careful Planning of the Electric sector is therefore of great importance since the decisions to be taken involve the commitment of large resources, with potentially serious economic risks for the electrical utility and the economy as a whole
Power system Planning is part of a more general problem, that of energy and economic development planning. Its objective is therefore to determine a minimum cost strategy for long-range expansion of the generation, transmission and distribution Systems adequate to supply the load forecast within a set of technical, economic and political constraints. Traditionally, Power system Planning has been mainly related to generation expansion planning. This is due mainly to the fact that investment in transmission lines is a relatively small fraction of the investment in the construction of Power stations and that investment in the distribution of Electric energy to customers, although sizeable, is to a large extent independent of the generation and transmission system.
The main steps in Power system Planning may be summarized as follows:
(a) Study of the Electric load forecast 5 to 30 years into the future, based on the most reliable information
Evaluation of the energy resources available in the future for electricity generation
and the foreseeable trends in technical and economic developments.
(c) Evaluation of the economic and technical characteristics of the existing system of generating units and of the plants that are considered as potential units for system expansion. These characteristics include capital investment cost, fuel cost,operation and maintenance costs, efficiencies, construction times, etc.
(d) Determination of technical and cost characteristics of the plants available for
expansion.
(e) Determination of the economic and technical parameters affecting decisions such as discount rate, level or reliability required from the generating system, etc.
(f) Choice of a procedure to determine the optimal expansion strategy within the
imposed constraints.
 

  (g) Qualitative review of the results to estimate the viability of the proposed solution

DC-DC converters

DC-DC converters are electronic devices used whenever
we want to change DC electrical power efficiently from
one voltage level to another. They’re needed because unlike
AC, DC can’t simply be stepped up or down using a
transformer. In many ways, a DC-DC converter is the DC
equivalent of a transformer.
Typical applications of DC-DC converters are where 24V
DC from a truck battery must be stepped down to 12V DC
to operate a car radio, CB transceiver or mobile phone;
where 12V DC from a car battery must be stepped down
to 3V DC, to run a personal CD player; where 5V DC on a
personal computer motherboard must be stepped down to
3V, 2V or less for one of the latest CPU chips; where the
340V DC obtained by rectifying 240V AC power must be
stepped down to 5V, 12V and other DC voltages as part of
a PC power supply; where 1.5V from a single cell must be
stepped up to 5V or more, to operate electronic circuitry;
where 6V or 9V DC must be stepped up to 500V DC or
more, to provide an insulation testing voltage; where 12V
DC must be stepped up to +/-40V or so, to run a car hifi
amplifier’s circuitry; or where 12V DC must be stepped up
to 650V DC or so, as part of a DC-AC sinewave inverter.
DC-DC converters

 

Eng.Snsn.Ahmad 

كشف الأشارة المتتابعة المباشرة للطيف المنتشر بالأعتماد على نظرية الفوضى

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Signal Detection  Based On Chaos Theory

كشف الأشارة المتتابعة المباشرة للطيف المنتشر بالأعتماد على نظرية الفوضى

                                                                    

Abstract

       “Weak Signal detection (WSD)” usually means that obtaining useful information of weak signal in a strong noise with detection tools. The objective of this paper is to study and introduce a method to detect direct sequence spread spectrum signals (DS-SSS) applying chaos theory by using one type of chaotic equation called Duffing – Holmes equation to model Duffing – Holmes oscillator. The detection depends on changing the phase plane from the chaotic shape to the periodic one, so after adding the signal to be detected (with the same interior frequency) and AWGN noise addition, if the phase plane is changed to periodic, this means that a signal is detected.To recognize detection, a proposed method named "rectangular-method" which depends on calculating the percentage of the points in a virtual rectangle to the total points introduced from numerical solution of the Duffing –Holmes equation of oscillator.  A bank of oscillators was used with certain frequency spacing between them to cover DSSS bandwidth.                

        The results obtained in simulation tests reached to detection with SNR down to (-60dB)  detection with probability of detection of (96%) and probability of false alarm (1%).

 

الخلاصة:

كشف الأشارة الضعيفة (WSD)دائما يعني أنه يمكن الحصول على معلومات للأشارة الضعيفة بوجود أشارة ضوضاء قوية بأستخدام وسائل الكشف . أن الهدف من هذا البحث هو دراسة وأستنتاج طريقة لكشف أشارة المتتابعة المباشرة للطيف المنتشر (DS-SSS) بتطبيق نظرية الفوضى. بأستخدام أحد أنواع المعادلات الفوضوية والتي تدعى معادلة (Duffing – Holmes)تم عمل نموذج لمذبذب من نفس النوع. أن عملية الكشف تعتمد على تغير مستوى الطور من الشكل الفوضوي الى الشكل الدوري , لذا فبعد أضافة الأشارة المطلوب كشفها والتي تكون بنفس التردد الداخلي مع الضوضاء,فأ ن التحول في مستوى الطور الى الشكل الدوري يعني أن الأشارة كشفت.لأستدراك الكشف هنالك طريقة مقترحة سميت"طريقة المستطيل"تعتمد على حساب نسبة النقاط داخل مستطيل أفتراضي الى جميع النقاط الناتجة من الحل العددي للمعادلة الممثلة للمذبذب. تم أستخدام حزمة من المذبذبات يفصل بينها تردد محدد لتغطية حزمة واسعة من الترددات الخاصة بأشارة (DS-SSS).

توصلت النتائج المتحصلة من خلال أختبارات المحاكاة الى كشف الأشارة بنسبة أشارة الى ضوضاء قدرها(-60dB) مع أحتمالية كشف (96%) وأحتمالية أنذار كاذب (1%).

 Eng.Snsn.Ahmad

Amplifier Circuits: Power Circuits

Links to electronic circuits, electronic schematics, designs for engineers, hobbyists, students & inventors:

1.5 W Power Amplifier type class-C -  This project will explain the basic function of a class-C transmitter. I will explain how to dimension a transmitter and the purpose of the different components. I will also explain how you can build a 1.5W PA transmitter. The project will include PCB, components....(added 07/07/07) 1.5kW Power Amplifier -  Just the thing for those for whom no amount of power is enough  (schematic added 6/07) 10 Watt Power Amplifier -  Simple Class A Amplifiers (added 4/02) 100 Watt Amp Circuit (Rod Elliott) -  Guitar amplifiers are always an interesting challenge. The tone controls, gain and overload characteristics are very individual, and the ideal combination varies from one guitarist to the next, and from one guitar to the next. There is no amp that satisfies everyone's requirements, and this offering is not expected to be an exception.... (design added 01/2010) 100W Audio Amplifier -  This is an exceptionally well designed amplifier, with a lot of power reserve, high fidelity, low distortion, good S/N ratio, high sensitivity, low consumption and full protection….(electronic design added 08/08/08)

100W RMS Amplifier -  This is a 100 watt basic power amp that was designed to be (relatively) easy to build at a reasonable cost. It has better performance (read: musical quality) than  standard STK module amps that are used in practically every mass market stereo receiver manufactured today. When I originally built this thing, it was because I needed a 100 WPC amp and....(added 6/06)

12 Watt Valve Guitar Amp -  (electronic diagram added 2/07)

2.8-GHz prescaler keeps cost down -  20-Jul-00  Published in EDN  The prescaler in Figure 1 inexpensively extends the range of a frequency counter by dividing the input signal’s frequency by a factor of 1000. The guaranteed input-frequency range…. [Design Idea by Neil Eaton, Emsys Engineering, Peterborough, ON, Canada]

Eng.Snsn.Ahmad

Motherboard Chipsets Map

اللوحات الأم التي تدعم منتجات إنتل

وكما هو واضح أن البرسسور لا يعالج أو تعامل مع الرام مباشرة (في حالة الانتل

فقط) ولكن يتم ذلك عن طريق northbridge ولهذا السبب تتوقف كفاءة اللوحة الأم

على كفائة تلك الشيب وهي الفيصل المهم في تحديد تميز لوحة أم عن أخرى.


تتعامل الرمات مع البرسسور في تصميمات الإنتل عن طريق الجسر الشمالي (northbridge)




صورة مبسطة لدائرة المازبورد amd



اللوحات الأم التى تدعم AMD

كما هو واضح أن التحكم في الذاكرة (memory controller ) مدمج داخل المعالج لذا

لا توجد فروق كبيرة كما في حالة الانتل

تتعامل الرمات مع البرسسور في تصميمات amd مباشرة دون المرور بالجسر الشمالي

من المعروف أن الرامات تعمل بنظام التزامن او ما يسمى TIMING وتخزن بها

البيانات على هيئة المصفوفة (MATRIX) بنظام يدعى STUCK

أو ما يطلق عليه في حالة الرامات FRIST INPUT FRIST OUTPUT )FIFO)

لذلك من المهم جدا أن تكون الرامات من نوع وسرعه واحدة حتى تعطي أقصى

توافق مع الجهاز.


ولكى نصل إلى الحالة القصوى لأفضل أداء للرمات يجب أن نهتم بما يسمى

DUAL CHANNAL إن كانت اللوحة الأم تدعم تلك الخاصية .




وهذا النظام من الرامات يجعل البرسسور يعمل بإمكانية أفضل لأنه من المعلوم أن

البرسسور أسرع بكثير من الرامات ولذلك ينتظر الرامات حتى تجلب الداتا وفي

فترات الانتظار لا يقوم البرسسور بأي وظيفه أو ما يطلق عليه حالة

IDALE .


لذلك هذا النظام يضاعف الاتصال بينthe memory controller and the RAM memory

أمثلة على شكل dual channal في اللوحة الأم

النوع الأول



النوع الثاني



الفولت الخاص بكل نوع من الرامات

كي نعرف مقدار الفولت اللازم لها ننظر على SLOT الخاص بها كما توضح الصورة التالية



أما في حالة RDRAM ( وهو نوع غير منتشر)





أما في حالة DDR3 الجديدة فيكون الفولت كما توضح الصورة





كيفية قياس فولت الرام على المازربورد

أولا المازربورد SDRAM



ثانيا المازبورد DDR1

 

 

Eng.Snsn.Ahmad 

MODULE ON MICROPROCESSOR

This topic consists of 8 hours of theory lectures and 6 hours of

  practical sessions,one criterion test of one hour duration and two hours of practical test.

OBJECTIVES

Be able toLesson 1 Describe the parts of a computer.

•

.Understand the Intel 8086 Microprocessor.Lesson 2

•

Describe the architecture of MPU 8086.

•

Describe the stack and the stack pointer,PC and Flag register Lesson Describe the Clock and power supplies

•

Describe the 8086 pin diagram Describe the timing, power supply andInstruction cycle of 8086.Lesson 4 Describe the meaning of Bus in Microprocessor.

•

Describe the types of Bus arrangements.Lesson 5 Understand ROMs and RAMs.

•

Describe the addressing modes in 8086 Microprocessor.Lesson 6

•

Describe the Hardware and Software Interrupts in 8086 Microprocessor.

•

Describe the Interrupt response of 8086 Microprocessor.Lesson 7

•

. Describe the concept of memory mapped I/O.

•

Describe the types of Data Transfer.

Criterion Test

The test will be held for ½ hour duration. The trainee is expected to secure 60 percent marks without the aid of the material

The entire CPU with timing and control functions on a single chip is known asMicroprocessor. Therefore a Microprocessor or MPU is an integrated circuit that containsmany processing capabilities of a large computer.

Microprocessor Evolution

A common way of categorizing is by the number of bits that their ALU can work with at a time. A Microprocessor with a 4 - bit ALU will be referred to as a 4-bitMicroprocessor, regardless of the number of address lines or the number of data bus linesthat it has. The first microprocessor was the Intel 4004 produced in 1971. This 4004 was a4 - bit device intended to be used with some other devices in making a calculator .Somelogic designers, however, saw that this device could be used to replace PC boards full of combinational and sequential logic devices. Also, the ability to change the function of asystem by just changing the programming, rather than redesigning the hardware, is veryappealing. It was these factors that pushed the evolution of microprocessors.In 1972 Intel come out with the 8008 which was capable of working with 8-bitwords. In 1974 Intel announced the 8080 which had a much larger instruction set than8008. The 8080 is referred to as a second-generation microprocessor.Soon after Intel produced 8080, Motorola came out with MC 6800, another 8-bitgeneral purpose CPU. Some of the other competitors were the MOS technology 6502 andthe Zilog Z80. The 16-bit microprocessors entered the marketplace in the late 1970s andearly 1980s. Then came the 32-bit processors.Most Widely, Microprocessors are divided into two groups based on their origin.These groups may be tabled as the 6’s group and that of the 8’s . A family

tree

of the 6’sgroup and that of the 8’s group is shown in figure 2.

5

We observe that as we progress upward on the

family tree

the trend is towards greater complexity. Complexity is noted in the figure, in terms of the

bit size

of the internalregisters. The 6’s group traces its origin back to the original 6800 Microprocessor designed by Motorola. The 8’s group traces its origin back to Intel’s 8080Microprocessor. Each branch in Fig.2 is labeled near the top with the manufacturer responsible for its development.

6

32-bitMPUs16-bitMPUsAbout 1980About 19748-bitMPUs65802/658168086/80886802068000/6801080816/801886803068096538265C0265028028680386Z80000Z-8000Z-80808580806800

8 s6 s

MotorolaZilogIntelMOS technology,Western Design Centre,Rockwell

Fig.2 Genealogy for 6’s group and 8’s group of microprocessors

The INTEL 8086 MicroprocessorIntroduction

The 8086 was the first 16-bit Microprocessor to be introduced by IntelCorporation. It is designed to be upwardly compatible with the older 8080/8085 series of 8-bit microprocessors. The upward compatibility allows programs written for the8080/8085 to be easily converted to run on the 8086.The word 16-bit means that its arithmetic logical unit, internal registers, and mostof its instructions are designed to work with 16-bit binary words. The 8086 has a 16-bitdata bus, so it can read data form or write data to memory and ports either 16-bits or 8- bits at a time. The 8086 has a 20-bit address bus, so it can address any one of 2

or 1,048,576 memory locations. Each of the 1,048,576 memory addresses of the 8086represents a byte-wide location. Words will be stored in two consecutive memorylocations. If the first byte of a word is at an even address, the 8086 can read the entireword in one operation. If the first byte of the word is at an odd address, the 8086 will readthe first byte of the word in one operation, and the second 

 byte in another operation

 

Eng.Snsn.Ahmad

الالكترونات الرقمية ملف رائع بالرسومات المتحركة digital electronics - logic circuits

DIGITAL electronics - logic circuits - 1

V. Ryan © 2003

Most modern electronic devices such as mobile telephones and computers depend on digital electronics. In fact, most electronics about the home and in industry depend on digital electronics to work.
Digital electronics normally based on ‘logic circuits’. These circuits depend on pulses of electricity to make the circuit work. For instance, if current is present - this is represented as ‘1’. If current is not present, this is represented as ‘0’. digital electronics is based on a series of 1s and 0s.
A good example of a digital electronic system is a mobile phone. As you speak into the phone, the digital electronic circuits it contains converts your voice into a series of electronic pulses (or 1s and 0s). These are transmitted and the receiving mobile phone then converts the digital pulses back into your voice. digital circuits are used because they are efficient and work well, also, digital signals are easier to transmit than actual sound (for example a persons voice).

The various parts of a computer communicate through the use of electronic pulses (1s and 0s). Consequently digital logic circuits are ideal for the internal electronics. The main part of the computer is the motherboard. This is a complex piece of electronics that processes all the important data. For instance, when word processing, it is very important to display letters and words on the monitor. The motherboard generates the individual letters on the monitor by sending a series of 1s and 0s to the screen.

(For more information regarding digital signals see computer control)

When the computer operator presses the letter ‘H’ on the keyboard, the motherboard converts this into a digital signal composed of 1s and 0s. The ‘H’ in the form of 1s and 0s is displayed on the monitor.
When you word-process a paragraph of writing all the letters/words are displayed on the monitor in a similar way. In reality the letters are not composed of 1s and 0s but as black or white pixels.

post #2 (permalink)   16-04-2009, 11:49 AM

Digital electronics - logic circuits V. Ryan © 2003 - 2009 LOGIC circuits are normally composed of ‘gates’. A combination of gates make up a circuit and some digital circuits can be extremely complex. It is the logic gates that produce pulses of electrical current (1s and 0s). At school level, digital logic circuits are relatively simple. Below are simple drawings that help explain the two most popular logic gates - the AND gate and the OR gate. The simplified AND gate shown above has two inputs, switch A and switch B. The bulb Q will only light if both switches are closed. This will allow current to flow through the bulb, illuminating the filament. The simplified OR gate shown above has two inputs, switch A and switch B. The bulb Q will light if either switch A or B are closed. This will allow current to flow through the bulb, illuminating the filament. When the bulb lights this represents a ‘1’ as current is running through the filament. If current is not running through the filament the bulb will not light and this represents a ‘0’ (zero). THE ROLE OF TRANSISTORS Transistors are vital for digital circuits to work. These components are used as very fast switches in digital logic circuits. Transistors are normally so small that hundreds of thousands fit on one processing chip on a computer motherboard. The types of transistors used in school projects are normally large enough to fit on the end of a small finger. However, the way they switched on and off is the same transistor . When a transistor is switched on it produces a ‘1’ and when it is switched off it produces a ‘0’. Transistors in the circuit of a computer microprocessor can switch on and off thousands of times per second. Without the invention of the transistor, computer processing power would be very limited and slow. Two basic examples of simple transistor driven logic (AND / OR) circuits are shown below. This is an AND gate circuit and it can be made quite easily. The example shown is built from a modular electronics kit. Both switches ‘A’ and ‘B’ must be pressed together for the bulb to light. If you construct this circuit, you may need to alter the value of the resistors. This will depend on the type of transistors used and whether to bulb or an LED is used. This is an OR gate circuit. Either switch ‘A’ or ‘B’ must be pressed for the bulb to  light. The switches do not have to be pressed togeth Eng.Snsn.Ahmad r